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It lets users download titles from a library of ebooks for a monthly fee. When the download completes, follow the on-screen installation instructions. Go to your KDP dashboard and make sure you are logged in. Go to your Amazon. Run on your device. How far are the criteria still centred on the theoretical concepts discussed in this chapter?
How closely does it resemble the writings discussed in this chapter? Are there significant differences in early translation theory written in different languages? Compare the varied papers in Hermans a, b. What are the similarities and differences between them? Try and depict this comparison visually see Table 3. How useful do you consider these principles for guiding a translator?
CHAPTER 3 Equivalence and equivalent effect Key concepts Q The problem of translatability and equivalence in meaning, discussed by Jakobson and central to translation studies for the following decades. In order to avoid the age-old opposition between literal and free translation see Chapter 2 , theoreticians in the s and s began to attempt more system- atic analyses.
The new debate revolved around certain key linguistic issues. Over the following twenty years many further attempts were made to define the nature of equivalence. Jakobson goes on to examine key issues of this type of translation, notably linguistic meaning and equivalence. Jakobson follows the theory of language proposed by the famous Swiss linguist Saussure — Instead of cheese, the signifier could easily have been bread, soup, thingummyjig or any other word.
Jakobson also stresses that it is possible to understand what is signified by a word even if we have never seen or experienced the concept or thing in real life. Examples he gives are ambrosia and nectar, words which modern readers will have read in Greek myths even if they have never come across the substances in real life; this contrasts with cheese, which they almost certainly have encountered first-hand in some form.
In Russian, that would be tvarog and not syr. This general principle of interlinguistic difference between terms and semantic fields importantly also has to do with a basic issue of language and translation. On the one hand, linguistic universalism considers that, although languages may differ in the way they convey meaning and in the surface realizations of that meaning, there is a more or less shared way of thinking and experiencing the world. On the one hand, linguistic relativity or determinism in its strongest form claims that differences in languages shape different conceptualizations of the world.
This is the famous Sapir-Whorf hypothesis that had its roots in the behaviourism of the s and in the anthropological study of the native American Hopi language, which, according to Whorf , had no words or grammatical categories to indicate time. Another claim that is often made is that Eskimos have more words for snow because they perceive or conceive of it differently.
This claim, and indeed linguistic determinism itself, is firmly rejected, amongst others, by Pinker 57—65; —51 , who points out that the vocabulary of a language simply reflects what speakers need for everyday life. The absence of a word in a language does not mean that a concept cannot be perceived — someone from a hot climate can be shown slush and snow and can notice the difference.
Thus, a translation of cottage cheese would not be the TT unit for cottage plus the unit for cheese; the message cottage cheese would be consid- ered and translated as a whole. Thus, Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two separate concepts.
For Jakobson ibid. Examples of differences are easy to find. They occur at: Q the level of gender: e. These examples illustrate differences between languages, but they are still concepts that can be rendered interlingually. As Jakobson ibid. How are these dealt with in translation?
The title of the first book is significant; Nida attempts to move Bible translation into a more scientific era by incorporating recent work in linguistics.
In very simplified form, the key features of this model can be summarized as follows: 1 Phrase-structure rules generate an underlying or deep structure which is 2 transformed by transformational rules relating one underlying structure to another e. The structural relations described in this model are held by Chomsky to be a universal feature of human language. The most basic of such structures are kernel sentences, which are simple, active, declarative sentences that require the minimum of transformation e.
In particular, Nida sees that it provides the translator with a technique for decoding the ST and a procedure for encoding the TT Nida a: This three-stage system of translation analysis, transfer and restructuring is presented in Figure 3.
Kernels are to be obtained from the ST surface structure by a reductive process of back transformation. Examples of analysis e. Nida a: 64 , designed to illustrate the different constructions with the preposition of, are: surface structure: will of God back transformation: B object, God performs A event, wills and surface structure: creation of the world back transformation: B object, the world is performed by A event, creates.
Nida and Taber ibid. Box 3. The two examples of literary transfer are different stylistically, notably in syntax, the American Standard Version being more formal and archaic. Nida ibid. Thus, son denotes a male child. A series of techniques, adapted from linguistics, is presented as an aid for the translator in determining the meaning of different linguistic items. Techniques to determine referential and emotive meaning focus on analysing the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields.
These include hierarchical structuring, which differentiates series of words according to their level for instance, the superordinate animal and its hyponyms goat, dog, cow, etc.
The latter seek to identify and discriminate specific features of a range of related words. The results can be plotted visually to assist in making an overall comparison. For example, Table 3. Table 3. Such results are useful for a translator working with languages that have different kinship terms. Sometimes more values will need to be incorporated. For example, Chinese may distinguish lexically between the maternal and paternal grandfather. Spirit thus does not always have a religious significance.
Even or perhaps especially when it does, as in the term Holy Spirit, its emotive or connotative value varies according to the target culture Nida ibid. Above all, Nida ibid. Thus, the Hebrew idiom bene Chuppah lit. In general, techniques of semantic structure analysis are proposed as a means of clarifying ambiguities, elucidating obscure passages and identifying cultural differences. They may serve as a point of comparison between different languages and cultures and are proposed by Nida especially for those working with widely differing languages.
How far do these map onto the English terms? How helpful is this componential analysis for translation? One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language. This type of translation will often be used in an academic or legal environment and allows the reader closer access to the language and customs of the source culture.
Nida a: This receptor-oriented approach considers adjustments of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. For Nida, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equiva- lent effect or response. This suggests that the scientific approach is still supported by the essential subjectivity of some of the language of the literal vs.
His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based or reader-based orientation to trans- lation theory. However, both the principle of equivalent effect and the concept of equivalence have come to be heavily criticized for a number of reasons: Lefevere 7 felt that equivalence was still overly concerned with the word level, while van den Broeck 40 and Larose 78 considered equivalent effect or response to be impossible.
How can a text possibly have the same effect and elicit the same response in two different cultures and times? Indeed, the whole question of equivalence inevitably entails subjective judgement from the translator or analyst. It is interesting that the debate continued into the s. The focus in these papers5 is notably on the impossibility of achieving equivalent effect when meaning is bound up in form, for example the effect of word order in Chinese and English, especially in literary works Qian Hu b: —6.
The example given ibid. Note the criticisms made. How valid do you consider these criticisms to be? The techniques for the analysis of meaning and for transforming kernels into TT surface structures are carried out in a systematic fashion, but it remains debatable whether a translator follows these procedures in practice.
Additionally, Nida showed he was aware of what he terms ibid. Ironically, Nida is also taken to task by certain religious groups who maintain that the Word of God is sacred and unalterable; the changes necessary to achieve dynamic equivalence would thus verge on the sacrilegious.
Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. An example would be a modern British English translation of Homer. No modern translator, irrespec- tive of the TL, can possibly hope or expect to produce the same effect on the reader of the written TT as the oral ST had on its listeners in ancient Greece.
Newmark ibid. On the other hand, as we Table 3. Importantly, as long as equivalent effect is achieved, Newmark holds literal translation to be the best approach: In communicative as in semantic translation, provided that equivalent effect is secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only the best, it is the only valid method of translation.
Newmark 39 This assertion can be related to what other theorists e. An example of this, provided by Newmark ibid. It would be translated communicatively as beware of the dog! It should also be noted that in his later discourse e. The two can be differentiated as follows: 1 Correspondence falls within the field of contrastive linguistics, which compares two language systems and describes differences and similarities contrastively.
This would include the identification of false friends e. Importantly, Koller a: points out that, while knowledge of correspond- ences is indicative of competence in the foreign language, it is knowledge and ability in equivalences that are indicative of competence in translation. However, the question still remains as to what exactly has to be equivalent. These equivalence types are listed below: 1 Denotative equivalence, related to equivalence of the extralinguistic content of a text.
This is closely linked to work by Katharina Reiss see Chapter 5. Koller describes the different types of equivalence in terms of their research foci. These are summarized in Table 3. So, the translator first tries denotative equivalence and, if this is inade- quate, will need to seek equivalence at a higher level — connotative, text-norma- tive, etc. As she got more powerful she got sort of sexier.
The problem is with the term sexier if we think of a potential translation into, say, Arabic. If we try denotative equivalence i. Connotative equivalence e. Taking into account the needs of the TT readers i. Find examples from texts in your own languages to illustrate each type.
Equivalence therefore continues to be a central, if criticized, concept. As might be imagined, scholars working in non-linguistic translation studies have been especially critical of the concept. Once the translator moves away from close linguistic equivalence, the problems of determining the exact nature of the level of equivalence aimed for begin to emerge.
The problem of the inevitable subjectivity that the invariant entails has been tackled by many scholars. In Chapter 4, we discuss taxonomic linguistic approaches that have attempted to produce a comprehensive model of translation shift anal- ysis. Chapter 7 considers modern descriptive translation studies. Yet there is still a great deal of practically oriented writing on translation that continues a prescriptive discussion of equiva- lence.
Translator training courses also, perhaps inevitably, tend to have this focus: errors by the trainee translators tend to be corrected prescriptively according to a notion of equivalence held by the tutor. The three extracts in Box 3. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. Much theological debate has centred on the relation of verse to verse — namely whether in the beginning refers to the act of creation of the earth on the first day, or whether the first verse is a summary of the chapter.
If the latter is the case, it would mean that a formless and empty earth existed before the creation of light in verse three. Here, there are a number of differences between the TTs.
In this case, it is the NEB which goes furthest to explaining the concept in terms the modern reader would immediately understand. Similarly, the NEB uses the term surface in place of the metaphorical face of KJV, a metaphor to be found in the original Hebrew paneem. The NAB retains the element of wind, but sees God as simply representing a superlative force, hence the inter- pretation mighty. Other possible translations are wind from God or breath of God, preserving both elements.
On some occasions, for example in John 3 from the New Testament, the ST in that case Greek makes a play on the word pneuma, translated by KJV first as spirit and then wind. The means by which the TTs attempt to achieve equivalent effect also differ: the NEB makes clear the links, including the choice of now at the start of verse It also explicates with surface, watery deep, and Spirit of God. On the other hand, the NAB maintains a focus on the desolate wilderness, with formless wasteland and mighty wind, even if cohesive links are added with the conjunctions when and while.
It also retains the threefold literal repetition of the conjunction and in verse This suggests that the KJV is most concerned with formal equivalence with the original, whereas the NEB and NAB are more oriented towards dynamic equivalence, making important adjustments for the receivers. There is little room for such adjustments or interpretation in some legal docu- ments, where the translation technique may be one of formal equivalence. An example is given in Box 3. This Treaty marks a new stage in the process of creating an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe, in which decisions are taken as openly as possible and as closely as possible to the citizen.
In law, all versions of the treaty stand as equally valid. However, the goal of equivalent effect is also crucial in a legal text such as this. In order to function correctly, each text must stand for the same idea in each language and produce the same response. Otherwise, varied interpretations would give rise to legal confusion and potential loopholes. In this respect it is perhaps surprising that the French version of the treaty should contain a slightly different perspective.
Note the consequence of this practice for traditional views of equivalence and some of the problems which result. How does the translator ensure that the effect will be the same on a Portuguese or British legal expert as it is on a French expert? When it comes to the translation of a religious text, such as the Bible, these questions multiply. It may, therefore, be more helpful to adopt his model not for the analysis of existing translations where the focus is on identifying what the trans- lator has done and what the effect is on the known audience but for the analysis of a ST that is to be translated.
Summary This chapter has examined important questions of translation raised by linguistics in the s and s. His concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence place the receiver in the centre of the equa- tion and have exerted huge influence over subsequent theoreticians, especially in Germany. In the next chapter, we look at other scholars who have incorporated systematic linguistic models into the study of translation.
Extensive criti- cism is to be found in Qian Hu a, b, a, b, and Snell- Hornby For analyses of meaning, see Osgood et al. For equivalence and corre- spondence, see Catford and ; see also Chapter 4 , Koller , Fawcett Chapter 5 , Kenny and Pym Chapters 2—3.
What information is provided to ensure equivalence between terms? Can it be said that the versions have achieved dynamic or formal equivalence? What tertium comparationis are you using in making your judgements? How far do their concepts differ from the western concept? Q Vinay and Darbelnet : classic taxonomy of linguistic changes in translation.
Q Cognitive models seek to explain the processes of translation through theory and observation. Q Think-aloud protocols and other experimental methods for analysing the translation process. This chapter looks at ways of analysing translation, first as a linguistic product sections 4. Since the s, a variety of linguistic approaches to the analysis of transla- tion have proposed detailed lists or taxonomies in an effort to categorize what happens in translation.
The scope of this book necessarily restricts us initially to describing a small number of the best-known and most representative models, though we shall expand the discussion to include more recent developments. These terms are sometimes confused in writing about translation. As we saw in Chapter 1 pp. The two strategies comprise seven procedures, of which direct translation covers three: 1 Borrowing: The SL word is transferred directly to the TL. This category 31—2; covers words such as the Russian rouble, datcha, the later glasnost and perestroika, that are used in English and other languages to fill a semantic gap in the TL.
Sometimes borrowings may be employed to add local colour sushi, kimono, Osho —gatsu. Of course, in some technical fields there is much borrowing of terms e.
In languages with differing scripts, borrowing entails an additional need for transcription, as in the borrowings of mathematical, scientific and other terms from Arabic into Latin and, later, other languages e. For example, the French calque science-fiction for the English.
Vinay and Darbelnet note that both borrowings and calques often become fully integrated into the TL, although sometimes with some semantic change, which can turn them into false friends.
An example is the German Handy for a mobile cell phone. Their example is: English ST: I left my spectacles on the table downstairs. In those cases where literal translation is not possible, Vinay and Darbelnet say that the strategy of oblique translation must be used. They list at least ten different categories, such as: verb A noun: they have pioneered A they have been the first; adverb A verb: He will soon be back A He will hurry to be back.
It can be: Q obligatory: e. Modulation at the level of message is subdivided ibid. Modulation therefore covers a wide range of phenomena. There is also often a process of originally free modulations becoming fixed expressions. For example, Vinay and Darbelnet suggest that the cultural connotation of a reference to the game of cricket in an English text might be best translated into French by a reference to the Tour de France.
Make a list of phenomena that are easy and difficult to catego- rize using their model. Among those that have maintained currency in translation theory are the following: Q Amplification: The TL uses more words, often because of syntactic expan- sion, e.
The opposite of amplification is economy. Q False friend: A structurally similar term in SL and TL which deceives the user into thinking the meaning is the same, e. French librarie means not English library but bookstore. Translation does inevitably involve some loss, since it is impossible to preserve all the ST nuances of meaning and structure in the TL. This may occur on the level of grammar e.
English ST the doctor explicated as masculine or feminine in a TL where indication of gender is essential , seman- tics e. These three levels reflect the main structural elements of the book.
Two further terms are introduced which look above word level. These are cohesive links also, and, but, and parallel structures , discourse markers however, first. Such levels of analysis begin to point to the text-based and discourse-based analysis considered in Chapters 5 and 6 of this book, so we shall not consider them further here. However, one further important parameter described by Vinay and Darbelnet does need to be stressed.
This is the difference between servitude and option: Q Servitude refers to obligatory transpositions and modulations due to a differ- ence between the two language systems. Similarly, adverbial structures in German and Japanese have a fixed order of time—manner—place, e.
This could be the decision to amplify or explicate a general term e. Clearly, this is a crucial difference. These are as follows: 1 Identify the units of translation. The first four steps are also followed by Vinay and Darbelnet in their analysis of published translations.
As far as the key question of the unit of translation is concerned, the authors reject the individual word. In the original French version —7 , an example is given of the division of a short ST and TT into the units of translation. The divisions proposed include examples of individual words e. To facilitate analysis where oblique translation is used, Vinay and Darbelnet suggest numbering the translation units in both the ST and TT for an example, see Table 4.
The units which have the same number in each text can then be compared to see which translation procedure has been adopted. Summarize the main differences between the two models. Although Vinay and Darbelnet do not use the term, that is in effect what they are describing.
Catford 20 follows the Firthian and Hallidayan linguistic model, which analyses language as communication, operating functionally in context and on a range of different levels e. Thus, formal correspondence is a more general system-based concept between a pair of languages e.
When the two concepts diverge as in efectos personales and bolso , a translation shift is deemed to have occurred. Catford considers two kinds of shift: 1 shift of level and 2 shift of category.
This could, for example, be: Q aspect in Russian being translated by a lexical verb in English: e. These are subdivided into four kinds: a Structural shifts: These are said by Catford to be the most common and to involve mostly a shift in grammatical structure. Examples given between French and English are number and article systems — although similar systems operate in the two languages, they do not always correspond. However, his analysis of intra-system shifts betrays some of the weaknesses of his approach.
He does, however, ibid. He does not look at whole texts, nor even above the level of the sentence. The question of stylistic shifts in translation has received greater attention in more recent translation theory.
The first point is typified by two papers, by Giuliana Schiavi and Theo Hermans, that appeared together in Target in the mid- s. Schiavi 14 borrows a schema from narratology to discuss an inherent paradox of translation: [A] reader of translation will receive a sort of split message coming from two different addressers, both original although in two different senses: one origi- nating from the author which is elaborated and mediated by the translator, and one the language of the translation itself originating directly from the translator.
The mix of authorial and translatorial message is the result of conscious and unconscious decision-making from the translator. For the analyst, the question is how far the style and intentions of the trans- lator, rather than the ST author, are recoverable from analysis of the TT choices. It has also been advanced by the use of corpus-based methods. So, for example, Baker compares the frequency of the lemma forms of the verb SAY in literary translations from Spanish and Portuguese by Peter Bush and Arabic by Peter Clark , and uses the British National Corpus of texts6 as a reference to judge their relative importance.
But this could simply be because of the influence of the SL; the Arabic qaal is generally more frequent in the language than is English SAY because the repetition of the same reporting verb in English is frowned upon.
Despite these problems, there are some important features that can be investigated by such studies. Most important, perhaps, is the analysis of the relative markedness of stylistic choices in TT and ST.
So, in English a sequence such as Challenging it is. The key is to look for the reason behind the markedness. In translation, it may usually be expected that a marked item in the ST would be translated by a similarly marked item in the TT but this is not always so.
On the other hand, Saldanha investigates features such as italicized borrowings that make a particular translation distinctive.
Some of my own work e. Or one that is promoted by the society in which they live? Such questions will be taken up more fully in Chapters 6 discourse analysis , 7 descriptive studies , 8 translation and ideology and 9 translator and ethics.
What does this tell us about the different phenomena they are investigating? It is a means of describing what constitutes the transla- tion product but there are limits to what it can or even attempts to tell us about the actual cognitive process of translation. The linguistic component needs to be understood by reference not only to explicit but also to implicit meaning in an attempt to recover the authorial intention.
This was an explanation devel- oped to explain the cognitive processing of the interpreter, where transfer supposedly occurs through sense and not words. However, rather than placing the emphasis on a structural representation of semantics, the interpretive model stresses the deverbalized cognitive processing that takes place. Yet deverbal- ization, a key plank in the interpretive model, is really underdeveloped theoreti- cally partly because of the problems of observing the process.
If deverbalization occurs in a non-verbal state in the mind, how is the researcher going to gain access to it, apart from in the reconstituted form of the verbalized output after the re-expression stage?
Here, there are many inferences at work: Q from the MP, whose humming makes and invites a particular inferencing, suggesting a link between the practices of the government Minister and the Italian mafia; Q from the audience, who need to interpret the relationship between the film and the Minister, who is of Italian descent; Q the need to apologize arises from the inference, made by others and apparently accepted by the MP, that his actions amount to a slur.
Translators, for their part, are faced with a similar situation and have several responsibilities ibid. They need to decide i whether and how it is possible to communicate the informative intention, ii whether to translate descriptively or interpretively, iii what the degree of resemblance to the ST should be, and so on. In the above example, a translator would need to decide how much information to add to ensure that sufficient communicative clues were present to allow a TT audience to retrieve the ST intention.
By focusing on the communicative process and cognitive processing, Gutt rejects those translation models, such as Register analysis see Chapter 6 and descriptive studies see Chapter 7 , that are based on a study of input—output.
He even contends that translation as communication can be explained using relevance theoretic concepts alone. We shall discuss this further in Chapter 6. One method, particu- larly popular in the s, is think-aloud protocols TAPs.
This is usually recorded by the researcher and later transcribed and analysed. Think-aloud is an experimental method innovated by psychology notably Ericsson and Simon and may provide more detailed information on the translation process than simply comparing the ST—TT pair.
Well-known early TAP studies of translation e. Despite the advantages of TAPs, there are some well-known and debated limitations. Gambier and L. Q The effort involved in verbalizing slows down the translation process and may affect the way the translator segments the text Jakobsen Q The data gathered is therefore incomplete and does not give access to processes which the translator does automatically.
Q What tools should the subjects be allowed to use dictionaries, notes, internet. That is, they support or supplement think-aloud with other experimental methods. The length of such fixation points, and the dilation of the pupil, may indicate the mental effort being made by the translator.
We use it as the basis for this case study, applying it to a short illustrative text. This text is a brief extract about the area of Greenwich in London, taken from a tourist brochure for boat tours on the River Thames. Boxes 4. Invaders from the continent passed either by ship or the Old Dover Road, built by the Romans, on their way to the capital. In , the Danes moored their longships at Greenwich and raided Canterbury, returning with Archbishop Alfege as hostage and later murdering him on the spot where the church named after him now stands.
In , the Danes moored their drakkars at Greenwich before raiding Canterbury and returning with archbishop Alphege, taken in hostage then murdered there where is found henceforth the church bearing his name.
Following the model outlined in section 4. Table 4. Often there are simultaneous lexical correspondences of both small and longer segments. For instance, ST translation unit 13 built by the Romans could be considered as three separate, clearly understandable segments: built, by and the Romans.
Similarly, ST units 23 with Archbishop Alfege and 24 as hostage could be considered as a single unit of thought. This type of segmentation problem recurs constantly.
Categorization of the translation procedures used for each of the ST units is shown in Box 4. There is thus word order shift. In addition, the change from ST repetition of Greenwich to the TT connector cette ancienne ville is an example of economy and of transposition proper noun A demonstrative pronoun.
This is also amplification. Borrowing of Old Dover Road, although with addition of article la. There is also modulation of the message here through a change of point of view. This could also be classed as fixed modulation whole A part in that the origin of drakkar is the dragon sculpture on the prow of the longboats.
In addition, ST unit 28 shows cause A effect modulation named after him A portant son nom and transposition prepositional phrase A noun phrase. Are there points where you disagree with the analysis? What does this tell us about the use of this kind of model? Discussion of case study Analysis of this box shows around thirteen direct translations out of twenty-nine translation units.
In other words, around 40 per cent of the translations might be termed direct. Most of the oblique translation proce- dures revealed affect the lexical or syntactic level, although there is some shift in prosody and structure.
The figures can only be approximate because there is a crucial problem of determining the translation unit and the boundaries between the categories are vague.
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